1. First printed books
2.Print comes to Europe
3.The print revolution and its impact
4 .The reading mania
5. The 19th century
6. India and the world of print
7. Religious reforms and public debates
8 .New forms of publication
9 . Print and censorship
1. First printed Books
The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea.
It was a system of hand printing in which books were printed by rubbing paper against the inked surface of wood blocks. It was called Woodblock Printing.
This technology helped in production of 'according book '. It was folded and stitched at the side because both sides of thin and porous sheet could not be printed.
Growth of print in China
.
A. In 16th century China , the number of candidates appearing for Civil Service exams increased, which led to the rise of print .
B. By the 17th century , merchant used print for collecting trade information .
C. Reading increasing became a leisure activity. To fulfill the needs many books of different genre were printed .
D. Western printing press was imported in late 19th century in China. Shanghai became the hub of new print culture.
Print in Japan
Buddhist monks from China introduced hand printing technology into Japan around (768-770) AD.
Oldest Japanese book -- Diamond Sutra
Japanese bookstores and libranes were packed with hand printed materials.
Topics of Books -- Women,Musical instruments ,Calculations, Flower arrangement ,Cooking etc.
Ukiyo - A form of art in which the ordinary human experiences were depicted.
Kitagawa Utamaro was also a Japanese artist of Ukiyo.
2. Print comes to Europe
Paper -- In 11th century Chinese paper reached Europe through the Silk route .It made possible the production of manuscript which is carefully written by scribes.
Marco Polo brought the woodblock technology from China to Italy .From Italy this wood block Printing technology soon spread to other parts of the Europe , but still the rich people preferred books written on the Vellum( Parchment made from the skin of animals) .
Students and Merchant bought cheaper printed copies .
Problem with the manuscripts
a) Copying was very expensive , laborious and time consuming business .
b) It was not easy to handle .
c) It was not easy to carry it around.
d) There was high chance of error in copying.
By early 15th century woodblock printing replaced the manuscript all over the Europe.
There was rise in the demands of books which could not be fulfilled by the Wood Block Printing.
In such a situation printing press was developed by the gutenburg.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
He had seen in his household how wine presses work.
He was also a gold Smith so he learnt how to create moulds for making ornaments.
The wine press provided the model for the printing press and being a gold Smith helped him made the moulds of the letters of alphabet .
The first book printed from the Gutenberg printing press was Bible.
3.The Print Revolution and Its Impact
Why it was a revolution?
- It was not just a change in the way of producing books, but it also transformed lives of people.
- It influenced the thinking of people and opened up new ways of looking at things.
A new reading public
Printing press made the production of multiple copies of the books easy. As a result books flooded the market, which led to reduction in the cost of books.
This created a new culture of reading.
Before the introduction of print, common people got knowledge in oral form. After the print, illiterate people got the knowledge in this way. The publishers started publishing popular ballads and folk tales which could be sung at gathering.
Religious Debates and fear of print
Print created the possibility of wide circulation of ideas,even those who discovered with the established authority could not print and circulate their ideas.
Fear of Print
Many were afraid that easy access of the book could spread rebellious and irreligious thought.
Martin Luther
Their fear came true when Martin Luther published Ninety Five Theses in which he criticized the rituals of Roman Catholic Church and asked the church to debate his ideas.
Very soon his writing became popular which led to division within the church and the beginning of protestant reformation.
It all became possible due to wide circulation of books through printing press.
He considered printing to be the ultimate gift of God.
Print and Dissent
Menochhio ,a Miller in Italy reinterpreted the message of Bible after reading books available in his locality .
This enraged the Roman Catholic Church, they established a court called inquisition to repress religious idea.
As a result Menocchio was held twice and executed by inquisition.
4.The reading Mania
Through the 17th and 18 century literacy rate increased as churches of different sect setup schools. This led to virtual reading Mania.
New forms of popular literature
To target different types of audience new forms of literatures were published in all over the Europe like :
A. Almanac, Ballads and folktales
B. Chapbooks(Small and cheap books): was sold by Chapman in England, Biliotheque Bleue in France.
C.Books of current affair and entertainment were also published in 18th century.
D. The ideas of scientist like Newton, Thomas pain and Rousseau became popular.
. This type of material was sold by pedlars employed by book sellers.
. Maps and scientific diagrams were widely printed.
4.2 ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
Ideas about books
Books were considered means of spreading progress and enlightenment.
. They could free society from despotism and tyranny.
.It has the power to bring a time when reason and intellect would rule.
Louis sebastien Mercier.
. A novelist in the 18 century who believed in the power of books.
. Many of heros in his novels are transformed by act of reading.
His Statement
.The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opirion is the force that will sweep despotism away.
. Tremble therefore tyrants of the world, tremble before the virtual writer.
4.3 Print Culture And The French Revolution
Print culture influenced the french revolution. It can be proved by three types of argument.
i. Print made it easily accessible the writing of enlightenment thinkers.They attacked the despotic power of the state. They demanded everthing to be checked by reason and rationality rather than custom.
E.g Rousseau, voltaire.
ii. Public became aware of the power of reason and recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. And this started a culture of dialogue and debate in which all value, norms and institution are re-evaluated by public.
iii. By the 1780 literatures mocked the royalty and criticised their morality.
. Cartoon and caricatures depicted the carelessness of kings toward common peple.
5. The Nineteenth Century
5.1 Rise in Literacy rate in Europe in 19 century.
Children
Primary eduction become compulsory for children.
Production of school textbook were required.
Children's press were setup in France in 1857..
Grimm brothers from Germany compiled the folk stories gathered from the peasants.
They published the story after editing.Anything that was considerd unsuitable for children was not included.
Women:-
They became active readers and some of them also began writing in leisure time.
As a reader they were interested in the following topics.
Topic- housekeeping,proper behaviour,novels,penny magazines
When it comes to writers Jane Austen ,Gerorge Eliot defined women in a powerful way. In their novel women are portrayed as person of will ,determination and power to think.
Worker (Artisans, lower - middle class)
. Got the facilitiy of reading books through library.
. Working day was reduced from the mid 19th century.Then they got some free time to write political books and autobiographies.
5.2 Further innovation
Mid 19th cent - Richard M. Hoe of New York:- Perfected power driven cylindrial press (suitable for newspaper printing).
Late 19th cent - Develoment of offset prees- prints up to six colours at a time.
6. India and the world of print
* Manuscripts Before Print.
India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscritpts in Sanskrit,Arabic, Persian and various vemacular languages.
e. g:- Gita Govinda, Diwane Hafiz
Manuscrits -
- copied on palin leaves or hand made paper were produced till late 19 century.
- Page were beautifully illustrated.
.Highly expensive and fragile.
They couldn't be read easily as it was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
Bengal had a network of primary school in village but the Students did not read text they only learnt to write.Teacher dictated portions text from memory.
Print in India.
. First came to goa- with portugese missionaries in mid 16 cent.
.Christian priest - Learnt Konkani and Printed books.
* First English press.
1780 - James Augustus Hickey
He edited the first English Magazine Bengal Gazette ( weekly Magazine).
He published aids- related to import and sale of slaves and gossip about the company's senior officials in India.Hickey was prosecuted by warren Hastings for this publication.
East India company encouraged the publication of the papers that would restore the image of Britisher.
Indians Brought first weekly newspaper Bengal gazette brought by Gangadher Bhattachaya.
7. Religious Reforms and Public Debates
From the early 19th century there were intense debate around religious issues.
Some criticized existing practices like polytheism,widow immolation, priesthood and idolatary whereas others countered the arguments of the reformers .
Their ideas were carried out in public by print in local language of people.
e. g:- Raja Rammohan Roy Published Sambad Kaumudi whereas his opponent published Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinion.
Muslim religious debates
Fear of ulema - Ulema were afraid that the after the collapse of Muslim dynasty in India :
a) conversion would be encouraged by the Britishers and
b) Muslim personal laws would be changed .
Ulema - Muslim religious scholars.
In response they published Persian and Urdu translation of holy scriptures, printed religious newspapers and books.
e. g:- The Deoband was founded in 1867 which published thousands of Fatwas to guide Muslim readers about proper manners according to Islam.
Interest of Hindus towards religion
Print encourage the reading of religious text especially in Vernacular languages among Hindus .
first printed edition of Ramcharitmanas came out from Kolkata in 1810.
Religious press
Naval Kishore Press. -- Lucknow and
Shree Venkateshwar Press -- Bombay
- >They published religious books in local languages.
->It was read by the faithful at any place and time.
->It could also be read out to illiterate mean and women.
Conclusion -
These texts reached wide circle of people which encouraged debates, discussions and controversy within and among different religions.
8. New forms of publication
Print created an appetite for new kinds of writing.People wanted to see their lives, experience,emotions and relationships in the books.
a) Lyrics, short stories,novels and essay emphasised on such things.
b) Painting were popularised by Raja
Ravi Verma which usually depicted religious characters.
c) Cartoons and caricatures ridiculed the educated Indians for imitation of western styles.
8.1 Women and Print
Education of women
Print paved the way for bringing education amongst women.
-- Liberal husbands and fathers began educating women at home.
-- Many journals published the syllabus and contents for homeschooling of women.
-- They were sent to schools after they were set up in the cities.
Opposition to their education
-- Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed.
-- Conservative Muslim believed that a literate girl would be corrupted by reading Urdu romantic novels.
Women Rebels
A. Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein
She was a Muslim girl of north India and secretly learn to read and write in Urdu as she didn't understand Arabic Quran.
She said the right to education is the basic right of women provided by Islam.
B. Rashsundari Debi
--- She was a young married girl. She learned to read in the secrecy of her kitchen.
-- She wrote her autobiography - Amar Jiban (First full length autobiography in Bengali)
Women Writers
There were some women who wanted to show the world their lives through their perspective.
A. Kailashbashini Debi
She wrote a book highlighting the experiences of women and the harsh reality of their household.
B. Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai
She wrote about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women especially widows.
Hindi printing
It began in 1870s after Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi.
Soon they devoted a large segment of it to the education of women.
Issues like women's education, widowhood ,widow remarriage etc were discussed.
Punjab
A. Ramchadda.
He published a book Estri Dharam Vichaar to teach women how to be obedient wives.
B. Khalsa Tract Society
also published books which included dialogues about the qualities of a good woman.
8.2 Print and the Poor People
Print made easy access to books at cheap rates which enabled the poor people to read it.
a) Very cheap small books brought to markets in the 19th century -- Madras .
b) Public libraries were set up in the early 20th century in towns and cities by the rich people. It also expanded the access to the books.
Caste
From the late 19th century issues of caste discrimination began to be written.
e. g:- Jyoti Ba Phule - wrote Ghulamgiri
Workers
Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to write about their own experience.
e. g:- A. Kashibaba (Kanpur millworkers)
Wrote a book "Chhote aur Bade ka sawal " to show the link between caste and class exploitation
B. Sudarshan chakra - published poems in Sacchi Kavitayen.
C. Bangalore Cotton Workers
set up libraries to educate themselves which was financed by social reformers.
It would help them to stop excessive drinking, to bring literacy and to spread the idea of nationalism.
9. Print and censorship
Censor on English writers
Before 1798 East India company tried to control printed material written against the miss rule of the company by the English writers.
They were worried that such criticism would hurt its trade Monopoly in India.
Press acts
1820 - Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press.
1835 - Bentick agreed to revise press laws.
1878 - Vernacular Press act passed which was modelled on Irish Press laws.
Vernacular Press Act
This act provided the government right to censor reports in the Vernacular Press.
They kept a regular track of the local newspaper published in different states.
When a report is considered seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored ,the press was to be seized and printing machine was confiscated.
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