Rise of Nationalism in Europe Notes
1.The idea of the nation and the French revolution
2. The making of nationalism in Europe
3.The age of revolutiona:1830-48
4. The making of Germany and Italy
5. Visualising the Nation
6. Nationalism and Imperialism
1. The idea of the nation and the French revolution
Nation --
One in which the majority of its citizens came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
The common identity did not come from common language, race , religion rather it was built on common struggles and symbols.
French revolution
The first clear expression of nationalism came in Europe with the French Revolution in 1789.The revolution transferred the power to a body of French citizens.
They took the following steps to create a sense of common identity
1. The idea of La Patrie (The fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) was introduced.
2. A new French flag, tricolour was chosen to replace the royal flag.
3. French language was encouraged whereas regional languages were neglected.
4. Internal custom duties and dues were abolished.
5. A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
6. A centralised administrative system waa put in place and uniform laws for all citizens were formulated.
7. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemmorated all in the name of the nation.
Mission
The revolutionaries declared their mission to free the people of other European countries from absolute monarchy. And they were welcomed by the people of those countries.
Napoleon's Rule
He introduced many reforms in France which were also exported to the conquered nations. Some of them are :
a) The civil code of Napoleon (1804)
It is also known as Napoleonic code ,which had the following main provisions :
i. Equality before law
ii. Right to property
iii. Removal of privileges based on birth
b) Transport and communication systems were improved.
c) Guild restriction were removed in the towns.
Reaction to the Napoleon's rule
In France
Peasants, workers and new businessmen liked his rule as they enjoyed new found freedom.
In conquered region
➡️Initially people welcomed French armies as a enabler of liberty.
➡️ The welcome very soon converted into anger and dissatisfaction because of :
a) Increase in taxes
b) Forces recruitment into army
c) less freedom of speech
2. The making of Nationalism in Europe
2.1 Absence of the nation States
2.2 Types of people in Europe
2.3 Meaning of liberal Nationalism
2.4 New conservation after 1815
2.5 The Revolutionaries
2.1 Absence of Nation-States in mid 18th century
In the 18th century Europe was divided into many Kingdom ruled by their autonomous rulers.
The people within the territories did not share a collective identity. They spoke different languages belong to different ethnic groups and had different history.
E.g:- Austria-Hungary was ruled by the Habsburg empire. They ruled many different regions and peoples.
Conclusion:- The only thing that bounded them together was a common allegiance to The Empire.
2.2 Types of people in Europe
a) Aristocrats
b) Peasants
c) Middle Class
#Aristocrats
➡️ They were socially and politically dominant group despite being minority in size.
➡️ They owned a lot of lands in both towns and villages.
➡️ They were United by a common way of life.
➡️ They spoke French language with each other and their families were often connected by ties of marriage.
# Peasants
➡️ They formed majority of population but had less status than that of aristocrats.
➡️ They did not own much land, whether they were tenants and used to cultivate the field owned by rich people.
# Middle Class
➡️ The rise in industrial production led to the emergence of a new Class called middle class.
➡️ The middle-class included Industrialist, Businessman and professionals.
➡️ They believed in the idea of liberal nationalism.
2.3 Liberal Nationalism
The liberal ideas that could bring national unity was called liberal nationalism .
Meaning
a) For New Middle Class :
➡️ Freedom of Individual
➡️ Equality before law
b) Political meaning :
➡️ Concept of the government by consent
➡️ A constitution and representative government through parliament.
c) Economic meaning :
➡️ Abolition of all restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
#Demands in Germany
➡️ During the 19th century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle class especially of Germany.
➡️ Germany was comprised of 39 states and each had their separate units of weight and measurement and had different currencies.
➡️ This was considered as obstacle to the business by middle class. So they made a union to abolish all internal duties.
#Zollverein
It was a custom union formed at the initiative of Prussia in 1834.
Provisions
➡️ The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over 30 to 2.
➡️ This step was called a step in national unification.
2.4 A new conservatism after 1815
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 in the battle of waterloo, the new European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Definition : It is a political philosophy that believes in preserving the traditional institutions like monarchy ,church, property etc.
Treaty of Vienna
Participants : Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria
Leader : Duke metternich (Austrian Chancellor)
Place :Vienna
Objective : Undo most of the changes initiated by Napoleon.
Terms :
a) Bourbon dynasty was restored in power in France.
b) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in the future.
c) German confederation of 39 states were left untouched and rest of others were given to the different participating nations.
#Rule of the conservatives
➡️They did not like criticism and dissent.
➡️Therefore they restricted freedom of press and of expression.
2.5 The Revolutionaries
➡️Due to fear of oppression the revolutionaries went underground and formed secret societies.
Objective :
➡️To oppose monarchy in Europe.
➡️ To fight for liberty.
➡️ To fight for the creation of the nation-states.
e. g:- Guisseppe Mazzini
➡️He was born in Genoa in 1807 and was sent into exile for doing the revolution.
➡️ Thereafter he founded two secret societies ----- Young Italy and Young Europe.
➡️ He believe in the unification of Italy under a democratic government.
Note - He was described as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order "by metternich.
3. The age of revolutions : 1830-48
3.1 July Revolution
3.2 The Greek War of Independence
3.3 The romanticism and the story of Poland
3.4 Hunger, hardship and popular revolt
3.5 Silesia Revolt
3.1 July Revolution
The first upheaval (उथलपुथल) took place in France in July 1830.That is why it is called July Revolution.
In this revolution Bourbon kings were replaced with Louis Philippe as the head of the constitutional monarchy.
Statement of Metternich
" When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold."
Explanation : This statement was proven true when July revolution led to the uprising in Brussels. This resulted into Belgium breaking away from the Netherland.
3.2 The Greek War of Independence
➡️Greece was under the ottoman empire since 15th century.
➡️The struggle for independence begins in 1821 inspired by the revolutionaries of Europe.
➡️ Finally in 1832, The Treaty of constantinople recognised Greece as an independent nation.
Supporters : Greece living in exile
And
West Europeans who had sympathies for the ancient Greek culture.
3.3 The Romanticism and the story of Poland
Romanticism :
➡️A cultural movement which aims at developing nationalism through art and poetry, stories and music and language.
➡️ This movement ignored science and reason and focused instead on emotions.
e. g:- German Philosopher Johann Gottfried claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among common people through folk song, poetry and dances.
Story of Poland
In Poland the national feelings were kept alive through music and language .
e. g:- Folk dances like mazurka and polonoise was used as a symbol of resistance.
Language as resistance
When Russia occupied Poland, they tried to impose Russian everywhere and tried to remove polish language from all the sphere.
This step was opposed by the clergy as they used polish language for all religious instructions. As a result a large number of priests were either put into jail or sent to Siberia.
3.4 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
➡️ In the first half of 19th century Europe was faced with enormous increase in population which created the problem of unemployment.
➡️Small producers of textile faced tough competition with machine-made goods from England.
➡️Peasants also struggled under the fuedal dues.
In such a situation if crops failed, it would lead to widespread pauperism(कंगाली).
Example of Paris
In 1848 France faced similar situation of food shortage and unemployment. This brought the people on road against the king.
Result :
➡️Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
➡️Democracy was set up in France and all adult males above 21 were granted the right to vote.
➡️ This new government in France also gave the right to work to people.
➡️ For providing employment national workshops were set up .
3.5 Silesia Revolt
Participants ---- Weavers of Silesia Vs Contractors
Reason ----- Contractors supplied the raw materials to the weavers to prepare finished cloths . They reduced the payment after the work was done.
How revolt began?
➡️A large crowd of weavers marched towards the homes of the contractors and demanded the promised amount.
➡️ The contractors threatened the weavers, which increased the anger of weavers.
➡️ This led them to attack their houses ,smashed its window panes, furnitures etc.
➡️ The contractors fled with their families to the neighbouring villages but was refused shelter.
➡️ The contractors return with the army and in the clash 11 weavers were shot.
4.1 Unification of Germany
What is unification?
➡️ The process of joining two or more things together to become one is called unification.
Here unification refers to having Country ruled by a single ruler.
Why unification?
German felt that in order to secure themselves from foreign invasion they need to be strong and United. That is why German unification was needed.
*Efforts for unification
i) Frankfurt Parliament
• In Germany a large number of political Association came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all German national assembly.
• On 18 may 1848, 831 elected representatives marched to Frankfurt parliament.
• They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy.
• The crownship on these terms was offered to the king of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm iv, but he rejected it.
Result -- Very soon the opposition of aristocracy and military became stronger. In the end troops were called in and Assembly was forced to disband.
This effort of unification failed finally.
ii) Otto Van Bismark
➡️ Russian King William I appointed Bismarck as its chief minister. He was credited for completing the process of unification with the help of Army and bureaucracy.
*War
• He fought wars with Denmark, Australia and France over 7 years and was victorious over all of them.
• Finally in, January 1871, the Prussian king William I was proclaimed German Emperor.
4.2 Unification Of Italy
During the middle of the 19th century Italy was divided into seven States out of which only one Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
➡️ The north was under the Austrian Empire, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of Bourbon kings of Spain.
* Efforts for unification
➡️ Guisseppe Mazzini put his effort to unify under a public but he was unsuccessful.
➡️ Cavour, the chief minister of Sardinia completed the process of unification with war.
➡️ He first of all took the northern part from Austrian Empire with the help of France.
➡️ Southern part of Italy was captured under the leadership of Guisseppe Garibaldi with the support of local farmers.
➡️ In 1861, Italy was unified under the Victor Emmanuel.
4.3 The strange case of Britain
Why the unification of Britain is considered a strange case?
It is considered unique due to the following reasons :
The unification of Britain is considered a strange case.It can be validated by the following points:
a) It was not unified through war or revolution like Germany.
b) It was a long drawn out process which means it did not happen in short period of time like Germany and Italy.
c) Unlike Germany and Italy The Britain was unified by a parliament.
Phases of Unification
a)Dominance of England ---
Power was seized from monarchy in 1688 by English Parliament .The English Parliament took the responsibility of forming a nation state with England as its center.
b) Merging of Scotland -- The Act of Union (1707) formed ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. As the majority of the members of British Parliament were English members, a policy of repression was followed against catholic clans of Scottish Highlands.
c) Incorporation of Ireland ---In Ireland too similar policy was followed. There were Catholics as well as Protestants. Catholics were in majority but England tried to bring protestant in power. This resulted in the conflict but Catholic revolts were suppressed and ultimately in 1801, Ireland was merged into the United Kingdom.
e) The symbols of the new Britain – The British Flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.
5. Visualising the Nation
Meaning : -- Representing the nation with image is referred to as visualising the nation... Usually female figures were used to portray the nation..
A. France
• The female allegory of Marianne was used in France.
• Statues of Marianne was erected in public squares , her images were marked on coins and stamps.
• This was done to remind the public of the national symbol of unity...
Features of Marianne :- Red Cap, The tricolor and The cockade...
B. Germany
Similarly Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
Features of Germania
Features (Attributes) Meaning
1. Crown of oak leaves. Heroism
2. Sword. Readiness to fight
3. Olive around the sword Ready for Peace
4. Breastplate with eagle. Strength
5. Broken chains. Being Freed
6. Tricolor Flag. Flag of liberalist
7. Rays of the rising sun. Beginning of a new era
6. Nationalism and Imperialism
Imperialism refers to the tendency of acquiring more and more land.....
By the last quarter of the 19th century the feeling of nationalism was misused to fulfil the imperialist aims...
# Balkans
• Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic difference comprising modern day --- Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Macedonia Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia etc..
.• The people living in this region were known as Slavs..
# Reason for tension in Balkans
Balkan was under the control of the ottoman empire. The spread of romanticism made this region very very explosive. Gradually each Balkan state began getting independence. such a situation created interest in Big European power to control this region... And this finally led to a series of war resulting into the First World War.
Nationalism in India 🇮🇳 Class 10 Notes History Chapter 3
1. Introduction
2. The First World War, Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movement
3. Differing strands within the movement
4. Towards civil disobedience
5. The sense of collective belonging
1. Introduction
In India the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to anti-colonial(anti-british) movement.
The sense of being oppressed under british rule provided a shared bond among different groups in India. Everyone from farmers, artisans to top business class was affected by their rule.
However each had felt its effect differently so their concept of freedom was not same. But the congress under Gandhiji tried to forge these groups together within one movement.
2. The First World War, Khilafat and NCM
#Connection of war with the growth of nationalism
i) The defence expenditure increased which was fulfilled by loans and increasing taxes : custom duties were raised and Income tax introduced .
ii) Prices of goods double between 1913 and 1918 -------------- leading to Extreme hardship for the common people .
iii) Forced recruitment of youth into the British army caused anger in rural areas.
iv) This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic which was very deadly.
At this stage a new leader appeared and suggested a new mode of struggle.
# The idea of Satyagraha
Mahatma Gandhi brought this idea of Satyagraha with him which he successfully experimented in South Africa.
#Definition
➡️ It is a novel method of mass agitation.
➡️ It emphasized the power of truth and need to search for it .
➡️ It implies that if the cause was true, then the physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
➡️ Without being aggressive are seeking revenge a Satyagrahi could win the battle through non violence and it will be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor.
Experiments of Satyagraha
A. Champaran
Gandhiji led a satyagraha in Champaran for farmers who were forced to grow indigo under the oppressive plantation system run by the britishers.
B. Kheda
A satygraha was launched here for supporting the peasants in their demands of realxation of revenue.
C.Ahmedabad
Mahatma Gandhi organjsed a movement in Ahmedabad to support cotton mill workers in their demands of wage increment.
The Rowlatt Act (1919)
➡️ To curb the satyagrah this act was passed in hurry through the British despite opposition of Indian members of the assembly.
Provisions:
It gave powers to the government to
a) Repress political activities.
b) Detain political prisoners without trial for 2 years.
Note --- This act was called Black Act.
Response of Gandhiji
➡️ He announced hartal in 6 April and decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against such unjust act.
➡️ Rallies were organised by people in various cities.
➡️ Workers went on strike in railway workshops and shops closed down.
➡️ The whole protest was entirely peaceful for the first few days.
Reaction of British administration
➡️ They reacted by arresting the nationalist leaders , as they were afraid of disruption in lines of communication such as the railways and telegraph.
➡️ On 10th April, The police in Amritsar fired upon peaceful processions which provoked widespread violence.
➡️ To calm the situation martial law(Army Rule) was imposed in Amritsar, and General Dyer took the command.
➡️ On 13th April, A large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh. Some came to protest against government's new repressive measures. Other had come to attend the annual Baisakhi fair.
Note - Being from outside the city many villages where unaware of the Martial law that had been imposed.
Finally, Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.
His Objective - To create a feeling of terror and awe in the minds of Satyagrahi.
#Reaction to Jallianwala Bagh incident
People's response:- Attacks on government buildings, clashes with the police and strikes.
The government's response:- Responded with brutal repression seeking to humiliate and terrorise people.
Seeing violence spread Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.
3. Non-cooperation Movement
Defination:- The movement in which Indians were told to not co-operate with the Britishers as it was told by Gandhiji that their rule survived in India only because of this corporation.
And it was predicted that British rule in India would collapse within a year if we start not to corporate them.
#Objectives
a) To achieve Swaraj
b) To redress the wrongs done in Jallianwala Bagh
c) To defend the post of Khalifa
Khalifa Issue
➡️ In the first world war, Turkey was among one of the Nations of Axis power and they were defeated in the war.
➡️ There were rumours that harsh treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman Empire, also called Khalifa.
➡️ He was considered the Spiritual head of Muslims all around the world. When they heard of this they protested the decision of Britishers.
➡️ To defend the post of Khalifa, a Khilafat committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
➡️ It was founded by a young generation of Muslim leaders like the brothers Shaukat Ali and Jauhar Ali.
➡️ They began discussing the possibility of a united mass action on this issue with Gandhiji.
➡️ Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of united national movement.
Note - At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to start a non corporation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.
*Stages of the NCM
a) It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded.
b) And boycott of civil services, Army Police, Courts and legislative council, Schools and foreign goods.
c) In case of repression by government, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
#Tussle Over Legislative Election Boycott
➡️ Many leaders of Congress did not agree to boycott the council election and they were afraid of violence.
➡️ In between September and December there was an intense tussle within the Congress over the issue.
➡️ Finally at congress session at Nagpur in December 1920, a compromise was worked out.
3. Differing strands of Non -cooperation
3.1 The movement in the towns
Participants --- Middle class
Participation
➡️ Thousands of students left British schools and colleges .
➡️Headmasters and teachers resigned and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
➡️Foreign goods were boycotted.
➡️ Foreign cloths were burnt in huge bonfire and liquor shop picketed.
➡️The council election were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.
Why election was not boycotted in Madras?
➡️ In Madras, Justice party , the party of non brahmins felt that entering the Council was one way of gaining some power .
Economic effect
➡️ Merchant refused to trade in foreign goods.
➡️Amount of import of foreign product fell down by half .
Reason of Slow Down
➡️Khadi was too expensive, so poor people could not afford to buy it. They begin buying foreign machine-made cloths which was available at much lower cost .
➡️Alternative educational institutions were not set up in sufficient numbers.
So, teachers and students begin going back to government schools.
3.2 Rebellion in the countryside
countryside = village
i. Awadh
Participants -- Peasants
Leader --- Baba Ramchandra (A sanyasi, worked as indentured labourer in Fiji)
Problems -- High revenue,Begari and eviction from houses so quickly
Demands --- Reduction in revenue,Abolition of Begari and security of tenure
organisation -- Oudh Kisan Sabha
(setup by Jawaharlal Nehru Baba Ramchandra and a few others )
Mode of Protest
➡️ In many places Nai-Dhobi bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive the landlords of the services of even barbers and washermen.
Reaction to the non cooperation movement
➡️When then NCM began, the effort of Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider struggle.
➡️ The farmers of Awadh reacted in a way Congress did not like because they were involved in violence by attacking the houses of landlords and looting the Bazaar etc.
ii) Gudem Hill (Andhra Pradesh )
Participant --- Tribal Peasants
Leader --- Alluri Sitaram Raju
Problems --- a) Denied entry into forest
b) Told to do Begari
Alluri Sitaram Raju
➡️ He was an interesting figure as he claimed to have some special powers.
➡️ Special Powers like making correct prediction about future , healing people and even surviving Bullet shots.
➡️ People proclaimed him to be an incarnation of God.
➡️He was inspired by Gandhiji and persuaded people to wear Khadi and give up drinking, but at the same time he was not a believer of nonviolence .
➡️He used guerrilla warfare technique to attack police stations.
➡️Very soon he came into the hit list of the Britishers.
➡️Finally he was captured and executed in 1924 and overtime Raju became a folk Hero.
iii) Swaraj in the plantation
Place-- Assam
Participant --- plantation workers
problem. ------ Under inland emigration act of 1859,they were not allowed to leave the enclosed area unless the permission was granted by the employers and it was rarely granted.
Meaning of swaraj for plantation workers
➡️Freedom to move in and out freely from the confined area.
➡️To reconnect with their native villages.
Reaction towards NCM
When they heard of Non-cooperation movement, they thought that Gandhi Raj is coming and they would easily get land in their native village after escaping from there.
They escaped and reached to Railway Stations and sea ports but due to strike they were trapped and finally caught by the police.
Withdrawl of NCM
In Feb 1922,Gandhiji decided to withdraw NCM due to the following reasons :
a) Violence erupted in Chauri Chaura
b) He believed that satyagrahi need to be properly trained for not indulging in violence.
c) Some members within congress got tired of mass struggled and wanted to return to council politics.
3.Towards Civil Disobedience
After Withdrawal of NCM reaction within the congress
a) Moderates /Liberals
They believed in returning to electoral politics ,so they formed Swaraj Party under the leadership of Moti Lal Nehru and C. R. Das.
b) Radicals
They continued to believe in the effectiveness of the idea of Satyagraha.
They were led by Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.
Reaction outside the congress
The nationalists who were not a member of Congress were very hopeful from NCM.
After its sudden withdrawal the revolutionaries lost hope from Gandhi style politics.
They themselves formed some organizations :
a) HRA-- Hindustan Republican Association(Formed in 1924)
After Kakori case most of them were either sentenced some punishment or went underground .
After disbanding of this group a new association was formed :
b) HSRA(Hindustan Socialist Republican Association)
➡️ It was formed in 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla Ground in Delhi.
Leaders -- Jatin Das, Ajay Ghosh, Chandrashekhar Azad etc
➡️ They did not believe in non-violence.
Two factors that shaped the congress politics after NCM
a) The effects of economic depression in India
b) Arrival of Simon Commission
Due to these two reasons Nehru and Bose became more assertive and gained more influence within congress.
b) Simon Commission
Head -- Sir John Simon
Members -- 7
Objective --- To suggest some changes in the constitution.
Why Indians boycotted them?
Indians boycotted them due to absence of any Indian members within the commission.
How did they boycott?
➡️They were greeted with the slogan 'Go Back Simon '.
➡️All parties including the Congress and the Muslim League participated in it.
Efforts of Viceroy Irwin
In order to win them over Irwin offered :
a) 'Dominion Status' for India
b) A round table conference to discuss a future constitution.
These efforts of Irwin didn't satisfy the Congress.
#Radicals take over Congress
When due to the economic depression and arrival of Simon Commission, the influence of Radicals grow in Congress. They held a session of Congress under Nehru in Lahore.
Lahore Session (1929)
President -- Nehruji
Resolution --- a) Purna Swaraj
b) Declaration of Independence Day on 1930.
#Salt March & CDM
*Demand Of Congress
On 31st January 1930 --- Gandhiji sent a letter to viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands.
➡️ The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax, and the government monopoly over its production.
*Ultimatum
The letter of Gandhiji was, in a way, an ultimatum. If the demands were not fulfilled by 11th March, the congress would launch a civil disobedience program.
But Irwin did not agree to the deal.
*Salt March Begins
Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march along with 78 of his trusted volunteers.
The march was over 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi. They walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day.
On the path thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by Swaraj and motivated them to peacefully break the British rules.
Finally on 6 April he reached Dandi and violated the law by manufacturing the salt.
Q. Why salt was chosen for passive resistance in CDM?
Ans:- Salt was chosen for passive resistance due to the following reason
i) Salt was consumed by the rich and the poor alike.
ii) It was one of the most essential items of food.
iii) The tax on salt have shown the most opprrssive face of British rule.
# People's participation in CDM
i) Thousands in different parts of the country manufactured salt.
ii) As the movement spread, foreign clouth was boycotted and liquor shop were picked. iii) Peasants refused to pay revenue.
iv) Forests people violated forest laws -- by going into the Reserved Forest.
#Reaction Of Government
They began arresting the major leaders of CDM.
1. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
He was arrested in April 1930 ,In response of this his followers in Peshawar protested but they were fired upon by the police. Many of his followers were killed in this unfortunate incident which is known as Qissa Khani Bazar Massacre.
2. Gandhiji
Gandhiji was also arrested a month later which led to the violent protest of factory workers of Sholapur.
3. Many satyagrahis including women and children were beaten and put into jail.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
In such a situation Gandhiji entered into a pact to end the CDM with the Britishers, which is referred to as Gandhi -Irwin Pact.
Provision of the pact
a) Gandhiji demanded release of all political prisoners.
b) Irwin wanted Congress to participate in the Second Round table conference.
Relaunching Civil Disobedience Movement
Gandhiji was disappointed with the talks at second round table conference .
When he returned to India, he found many of the congress leaders in jail and Congress declared illegal.
This situation made him restart civil Disobedience.
Participants of CDM
1. Rich farmers
Major participants -- Jats (UP) And Patidars(Gujarat)
Problem --- They were unable to pay revenue due to the loss suffered from economic depression.
Demand --- They demanded reduction in revenue which was denied.
Participation --
➡️ The rich farmers organised their communities to participate in the boycott programs.
➡️ They didn't participate the second time because the movement was called off the first time without considering their demand.
2.Poor Farmers
They were mainly against the rich farmers in their demand of relaxation in rent.
Congress didn't support their no rent compaign as it would upset the rich peasants. As a result they joined a variety of radical movements often led by socialists and communists.
3.Business Class
Demand -- 1. Protection against import
2. A rupee-sterling exchange ratio that would discourage imports.
ORGANIZATION --
To organise the people they formed organisation like :-
1.Indian Industrial and commercial congress in 1920
2.Federation of Indian Chamber of commerce and industries (FICCI) in 1927.
Leaders -- Purushottam Das Thakur Das and G. D. Birla
Mode of participation --
1.They refused to buy or sell imported goods.
2.They also provided financial support to the movement.
Second Phase :-
They did not show interest second time when the movement was relaunched due to the following reasons :
1. They were afraid of violence which would disrupt their business.
2. They were also worried about the influence of socialism among the younger members of the congress.
4.Factory workers
The demand of industrial working class would be against the business class. Due to the closeness of business class in the movement they did not participate in it except in few regions.
5.Women
Large scale participation of women is a unique feature of the civil disobedience movement.
Participant --
Rural -- Rich peasants
Urban -- High caste families
How they participated?
They participated in protest marches and came out to listen to Gandhiji.
They manufactured salts, picketed foreign cloths and liquor shops.
Many of them even went to jail.
Q. Why the women were not given any position of authority within the organization despite their active participation in the movement?
Women were not given any position of authority within the organization as :
a) Gandhiji considered the duty of women to look after home, be good mothers and good wives.
b) They were keen only on their symbolic presence.
The limits of the CDM
There were some groups who were not moved by the concept of swaraj:
a) Dalit
Initial congress ignored the dalits for fear of losing support of the conservative high -caste Hindus . Later on they realised the need to improve their conditions.
Steps taken by Gandhiji to improve their conditions
a. He gave them a new name 'Harijans ' meaning children of God.
b. He organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, public wells, tanks,roads and schools.
c. He himself cleaned the toilet to dignify the work of Bhangi.
d. He convinced the upper castes to
give up the sin of untouchability.
Reaction of Dalit leaders
Dalit leaders were looking for the political solutions to the problems of the community. Their demands were :-
a. Reserved seats in the educational institutions and assembly.
b. A separate electorate
Conclusion :-- Dalit participation in the CDM was therefore limited.
B. R. Ambedkar
He organised dalits into the depressed class association in 1930.
He clashed with Gandhiji at the second round table conference by demanding separate electorates for the dalits.
His demand for separate electorate was accepted by the British government.
Gandhiji opposed it by going into fast into death.
Ambedkar finally accepted his position which resulted in Poona Pact.
Separate electorate - A system in which people from the same community would vote among the leaders of his own community.
Poona Pact (1932)
➡️Reserved seats in the state and central councils were alloted.
➡️The general electorate was accepted.
Muslims
Some of the Muslim political organisations in India did not show enthusiasm towards CDM.
The Reasons were:-
a. From the Mid-1920s the congress came to be visibly associated with openly Hindu religious groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
b. Many muslim leaders were afraid that the culture and identity of Muslim minority would be submerged under the domination of a Hindu majority.
c. Their demands for separate electorate and reservation was also not accepted by the congress.
4. The sense of collective belonging
Nationalism spreads when peope begin to discover some unity that binds
them together. This sense of belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles and partly through other cultural processes.
They were :-
1. Image
a.The identity of nation is often symbolised in an image .
b. This helps people to identify the nation .
c. In the 19th century the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
d. The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, who also wrote
'Vande Matram ' which was widely sung during Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
Different forms of Bharat Mata :-
(i) Ascetic Figure
a. Moved by the Swadeshi Movement , Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous
image of Bharat Mata .
b. In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as calm , divine and spiritual figure.
c. She is shown as dispensing learning,
food and clothing . The mala in one hand
emphasises her ascetic quality.
(ii) Image represening power and authority :
In subsequent years the image of Bharat Mata acquired many different forms and was painted by different artists.
2. Folklore
a. The folklore means traditional beliefs and stories.
b. Many Indian leaders toured villages to collect them because they believed that the legends and folk songs gave a true picture of traditional culture .
c. And they considered it essential to preserve it to restore a sense of pride in the past.
d. E.g :- Rabindranath Tagore (in Bengali) , Natesa Sastri (in Tamil)
3. Flags
a. During freedom movements people were carrying the flags and holding it aloft .
b. Differnt types of flags :
Swadeshi Flag
Tricolor ( Red , Green and Yellow)
Symbol - 8 Lotuses & A Crescent Moon
Meaning : Lotus = Provinces of British India
Crescent Moon = Hindus and Muslim culture
Swaraj Flag ( By Gandhiji)
Tricolor ( Red , Green and White)
Symbol - Spinning Wheel in the centre
Meaning :- Spinning Wheel = Self Help
4. Reinterpretation of History
a. British portrayed Indian to be backward , primitive and incapable of governing themselves.
b. In response Indians began looking into the past to discover India's great achievement in architecture , science , mathematics , religion , law and philosophy.
c. The nationalist historians urged the readers to take pride in the India's great past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.
# Problem with this approach
a. The past which was glorified was Hindu and the images celebrated came from Hindu Iconography.
b. As a result the people of other communities felt left out.
The making of Global World Class Xth History Notes
1.Pre-modern world
1.1 Silk Routes
1.2 Food Travels
1.3 conquest,disease and trade1.Pre-modern world
The Making of global world has a long history of trade ,migration ,movement of capital and ideas. travellers,traders,priest and pilgrims migrated from one place to another
in search of knowledge,opportunities and spiritual fulfillment. they had carried goods,money,values,skills,ideas,germs and diseases.
As for Example :
1.Indus valley - It was linked with west Asia for coastal trade.
2. Cowrie - For more than 1000 years Cowrie was used as a form of currency which was found from Maldives.
1.1 Silk Routes
- It was a route from Land and sea which linked Asia,Europe and Northern Africa.
- It was active from BC to 15th century till America was discovered.
- This was a pre-modern route through which different kinds of trade and cultural exchange took place.
- It is known as silk route due to trade of famous chinese silk to the distant part of the world.
- Apart from silk ,chinese pottery ,textile and spices from India, and Gold and Silver from Europe were traded in.
- Other than goods many religious precahers too travelled through these routes. Buddhism,Christianity and Islam was propagated through these routes.
1.2 Food Travels
Many wellknown food items too travelled to different countries via these routes . for example noodles is believed to have travelled from china to west where it is known as spaghetti. Even this is hypothesized that Arab took pasta to Italy from where it reached throug whole Europe.
Disovery of AmericaThe discovery of America paved ways for new discovery. Many fooditems which we use today were not known to our ancestors five centuries ago .
for example - Potato,Tomato,Sweet Potato,chilli,Soya ,maize etc. All these foods were brought to India by the Europeans who themselves took it from America .
Dependency on Potato - Europe's poor began to eat better and live longer with the introduction of potato.For example when famine destroyed pottao crops in ireland ,Thousands of people died of starvation. New crops would make huge difference between life and death.
1.3 Conquest,Disease and Trade
Before its discovery,America had no contact with the rest of the world for millions of years.But from 16th century its vast lands and abundant crops ,minerals transformed trade and lives of many people. Crops like potato,tomato,sweetpotato and minerals like silver from Peru ,Mexico and Gold attracted people to these lands.
To Conquer America and kill its local population,germs were used by the Spanish conquerors as a weapon.They carried smallpox to the new discovered land ,it was proven deadly for them as they had no immunity for it due to isolation from the world.
Migration to America - due to widespread hunger and poverty ,spread of deadly diseases and religious war people from Europe fled to America . Later on these people settled there and comprised of current population.
Print Culture And Modern World Full Notes 1. First printed books
2.Print comes to Europe
3.The print revolution and its impact
4 .The reading mania
5. The 19th century
6. India and the world of print
7. Religious reforms and public debates
8 .New forms of publication
9 . Print and censorship
1. First printed Books
The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea.
It was a system of hand printing in which books were printed by rubbing paper against the inked surface of wood blocks. It was called Woodblock Printing.
This technology helped in production of 'according book '. It was folded and stitched at the side because both sides of thin and porous sheet could not be printed.
Growth of print in China .
A. In 16th century China , the number of candidates appearing for Civil Service exams increased, which led to the rise of print .
B. By the 17th century , merchant used print for collecting trade information .
C. Reading increasing became a leisure activity. To fulfill the needs many books of different genre were printed .
D. Western printing press was imported in late 19th century in China. Shanghai became the hub of new print culture.
Print in Japan
Buddhist monks from China introduced hand printing technology into Japan around (768-770) AD.
Oldest Japanese book -- Diamond Sutra
Japanese bookstores and libranes were packed with hand printed materials.
Topics of Books -- Women,Musical instruments ,Calculations, Flower arrangement ,Cooking etc.
Ukiyo - A form of art in which the ordinary human experiences were depicted.
Kitagawa Utamaro was also a Japanese artist of Ukiyo.
2. Print comes to Europe
Paper -- In 11th century Chinese paper reached Europe through the Silk route .It made possible the production of manuscript which is carefully written by scribes.
Marco Polo brought the woodblock technology from China to Italy .From Italy this wood block Printing technology soon spread to other parts of the Europe , but still the rich people preferred books written on the Vellum( Parchment made from the skin of animals) .
Students and Merchant bought cheaper printed copies .
Problem with the manuscripts
a) Copying was very expensive , laborious and time consuming business .
b) It was not easy to handle .
c) It was not easy to carry it around.
d) There was high chance of error in copying.
By early 15th century woodblock printing replaced the manuscript all over the Europe.
There was rise in the demands of books which could not be fulfilled by the Wood Block Printing. In such a situation printing press was developed by the gutenburg.
Gutenberg and the Printing Press
He had seen in his household how wine presses work.
He was also a gold Smith so he learnt how to create moulds for making ornaments.
The wine press provided the model for the printing press and being a gold Smith helped him made the moulds of the letters of alphabet . The first book printed from the Gutenberg printing press was Bible.
3.The Print Revolution and Its Impact
Why it was a revolution? - It was not just a change in the way of producing books, but it also transformed lives of people. - It influenced the thinking of people and opened up new ways of looking at things.
A new reading public
Printing press made the production of multiple copies of the books easy. As a result books flooded the market, which led to reduction in the cost of books.
This created a new culture of reading. Before the introduction of print, common people got knowledge in oral form. After the print, illiterate people got the knowledge in this way. The publishers started publishing popular ballads and folk tales which could be sung at gathering. Religious Debates and fear of print
Print created the possibility of wide circulation of ideas,even those who discovered with the established authority could not print and circulate their ideas.
Fear of Print
Many were afraid that easy access of the book could spread rebellious and irreligious thought.
Martin Luther
Their fear came true when Martin Luther published Ninety Five Theses in which he criticized the rituals of Roman Catholic Church and asked the church to debate his ideas.
Very soon his writing became popular which led to division within the church and the beginning of protestant reformation.
It all became possible due to wide circulation of books through printing press.
He considered printing to be the ultimate gift of God.
Print and Dissent
Menochhio ,a Miller in Italy reinterpreted the message of Bible after reading books available in his locality .
This enraged the Roman Catholic Church, they established a court called inquisition to repress religious idea.
As a result Menocchio was held twice and executed by inquisition.
4.The reading Mania
Through the 17th and 18 century literacy rate increased as churches of different sect setup schools. This led to virtual reading Mania. New forms of popular literature To target different types of audience new forms of literatures were published in all over the Europe like :
A. Almanac, Ballads and folktales
B. Chapbooks(Small and cheap books): was sold by Chapman in England, Biliotheque Bleue in France.
C.Books of current affair and entertainment were also published in 18th century.
D. The ideas of scientist like Newton, Thomas pain and Rousseau became popular.
. This type of material was sold by pedlars employed by book sellers.
. Maps and scientific diagrams were widely printed.
4.2 ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
Ideas about books
Books were considered means of spreading progress and enlightenment.
. They could free society from despotism and tyranny.
.It has the power to bring a time when reason and intellect would rule.
Louis sebastien Mercier.
. A novelist in the 18 century who believed in the power of books.
. Many of heros in his novels are transformed by act of reading.
His Statement
.The printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public opirion is the force that will sweep despotism away.
. Tremble therefore tyrants of the world, tremble before the virtual writer.
4.3 Print Culture And The French Revolution
Print culture influenced the french revolution. It can be proved by three types of argument.
i. Print made it easily accessible the writing of enlightenment thinkers.They attacked the despotic power of the state. They demanded everthing to be checked by reason and rationality rather than custom.
E.g Rousseau, voltaire.
ii. Public became aware of the power of reason and recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. And this started a culture of dialogue and debate in which all value, norms and institution are re-evaluated by public.
iii. By the 1780 literatures mocked the royalty and criticised their morality.
. Cartoon and caricatures depicted the carelessness of kings toward common peple.
5. The Nineteenth Century
5.1 Rise in Literacy rate in Europe in 19 century.
Children
Primary eduction become compulsory for children.
Production of school textbook were required.
Children's press were setup in France in 1857..
Grimm brothers from Germany compiled the folk stories gathered from the peasants.
They published the story after editing.Anything that was considerd unsuitable for children was not included.
Women:-
They became active readers and some of them also began writing in leisure time.
As a reader they were interested in the following topics.
Topic- housekeeping,proper behaviour,novels,penny magazines
When it comes to writers Jane Austen ,Gerorge Eliot defined women in a powerful way. In their novel women are portrayed as person of will ,determination and power to think.
Worker (Artisans, lower - middle class)
. Got the facilitiy of reading books through library.
. Working day was reduced from the mid 19th century.Then they got some free time to write political books and autobiographies.
5.2 Further innovation
Mid 19th cent - Richard M. Hoe of New York:- Perfected power driven cylindrial press (suitable for newspaper printing).
Late 19th cent - Develoment of offset prees- prints up to six colours at a time.
6. India and the world of print
* Manuscripts Before Print.
India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscritpts in Sanskrit,Arabic, Persian and various vemacular languages.
e. g:- Gita Govinda, Diwane Hafiz
Manuscrits -
- copied on palin leaves or hand made paper were produced till late 19 century.
- Page were beautifully illustrated.
.Highly expensive and fragile.
They couldn't be read easily as it was written in different styles. So manuscripts were not widely used in everyday life.
Bengal had a network of primary school in village but the Students did not read text they only learnt to write.Teacher dictated portions text from memory.
Print in India.
. First came to goa- with portugese missionaries in mid 16 cent.
.Christian priest - Learnt Konkani and Printed books.
* First English press.
1780 - James Augustus Hickey
He edited the first English Magazine Bengal Gazette ( weekly Magazine).
He published aids- related to import and sale of slaves and gossip about the company's senior officials in India.Hickey was prosecuted by warren Hastings for this publication.
East India company encouraged the publication of the papers that would restore the image of Britisher.
Indians Brought first weekly newspaper Bengal gazette brought by Gangadher Bhattachaya.
7. Religious Reforms and Public Debates
From the early 19th century there were intense debate around religious issues.
Some criticized existing practices like polytheism,widow immolation, priesthood and idolatary whereas others countered the arguments of the reformers .
Their ideas were carried out in public by print in local language of people.
e. g:- Raja Rammohan Roy Published Sambad Kaumudi whereas his opponent published Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinion.
Muslim religious debates
Fear of ulema - Ulema were afraid that the after the collapse of Muslim dynasty in India :
a) conversion would be encouraged by the Britishers and
b) Muslim personal laws would be changed .
Ulema - Muslim religious scholars.
In response they published Persian and Urdu translation of holy scriptures, printed religious newspapers and books.
e. g:- The Deoband was founded in 1867 which published thousands of Fatwas to guide Muslim readers about proper manners according to Islam.
Interest of Hindus towards religion
Print encourage the reading of religious text especially in Vernacular languages among Hindus .
first printed edition of Ramcharitmanas came out from Kolkata in 1810.
Religious press
Naval Kishore Press. -- Lucknow and
Shree Venkateshwar Press -- Bombay
- >They published religious books in local languages.
->It was read by the faithful at any place and time.
->It could also be read out to illiterate mean and women.
Conclusion -
These texts reached wide circle of people which encouraged debates, discussions and controversy within and among different religions.
8. New forms of publication
Print created an appetite for new kinds of writing.People wanted to see their lives, experience,emotions and relationships in the books.
a) Lyrics, short stories,novels and essay emphasised on such things.
b) Painting were popularised by Raja
Ravi Verma which usually depicted religious characters.
c) Cartoons and caricatures ridiculed the educated Indians for imitation of western styles.
8.1 Women and Print
Education of women
Print paved the way for bringing education amongst women.
-- Liberal husbands and fathers began educating women at home.
-- Many journals published the syllabus and contents for homeschooling of women.
-- They were sent to schools after they were set up in the cities.
Opposition to their education
-- Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed.
-- Conservative Muslim believed that a literate girl would be corrupted by reading Urdu romantic novels.
Women Rebels
A. Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein
She was a Muslim girl of north India and secretly learn to read and write in Urdu as she didn't understand Arabic Quran.
She said the right to education is the basic right of women provided by Islam.
B. Rashsundari Debi
--- She was a young married girl. She learned to read in the secrecy of her kitchen.
-- She wrote her autobiography - Amar Jiban (First full length autobiography in Bengali)
Women Writers
There were some women who wanted to show the world their lives through their perspective.
A. Kailashbashini Debi
She wrote a book highlighting the experiences of women and the harsh reality of their household.
B. Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai
She wrote about the miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women especially widows.
Hindi printing
It began in 1870s after Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi.
Soon they devoted a large segment of it to the education of women.
Issues like women's education, widowhood ,widow remarriage etc were discussed.
Punjab
A. Ramchadda.
He published a book Estri Dharam Vichaar to teach women how to be obedient wives.
B. Khalsa Tract Society
also published books which included dialogues about the qualities of a good woman.
8.2 Print and the Poor People
Print made easy access to books at cheap rates which enabled the poor people to read it.
a) Very cheap small books brought to markets in the 19th century -- Madras .
b) Public libraries were set up in the early 20th century in towns and cities by the rich people. It also expanded the access to the books.
Caste
From the late 19th century issues of caste discrimination began to be written.
e. g:- Jyoti Ba Phule - wrote Ghulamgiri
Workers
Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to write about their own experience.
e. g:- A. Kashibaba (Kanpur millworkers)
Wrote a book "Chhote aur Bade ka sawal " to show the link between caste and class exploitation
B. Sudarshan chakra - published poems in Sacchi Kavitayen.
C. Bangalore Cotton Workers
set up libraries to educate themselves which was financed by social reformers.
It would help them to stop excessive drinking, to bring literacy and to spread the idea of nationalism.
9. Print and censorship
Censor on English writers
Before 1798 East India company tried to control printed material written against the miss rule of the company by the English writers.
They were worried that such criticism would hurt its trade Monopoly in India.
Press acts
1820 - Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press.
1835 - Bentick agreed to revise press laws.
1878 - Vernacular Press act passed which was modelled on Irish Press laws.
Vernacular Press Act
This act provided the government right to censor reports in the Vernacular Press.
They kept a regular track of the local newspaper published in different states.
When a report is considered seditious, the newspaper was warned and if the warning was ignored ,the press was to be seized and printing machine was confiscated.
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